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The Netherlands in the 16th and 17th century

The blossoming of the 16th century

The marriage between Maximilian of Austria and Maria of Burgundy formally attached the Netherlands to the house of Habsburg. Maximilian was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1486. By his marriage politics ("tu felix Austria nube") Maximilian managed to bring many regions into the house of Habsburg, not least Spain. His grandson Charles V followed him to the throne and became Holy Roman Emperor, King of Spain, and lord of the Netherlands. The economic situation in the Netherlands at that time was very favourable. The textile sector in particular was growing strongly. From the 15th century onwards Antwerp was the economic centre. In cultural terms the Netherlands in the 16th century counted amongst the best in Europe. Book printing also flourished greatly, for example Christoffel Plantin in Antwerp.?

The crisis

At the end of the 16th century the crisis broke. There were economic problems such as bad harvests, low wages and the English trade embargo. Secondly the new religious movements were becoming more important. Turning away from Catholicism also meant rejecting the established order. The followers of Protestantism were pursued by the Spanish. Thirdly the independent thinking Dutch burghers were strongly opposed to such absolute government. Also problematic was the great distance between the King (Philip II) and his lands. This offered many opportunities for opposition forces.

In this tense situation some of the nobility turned to the governess Margaret of Parma, to find relief from the actions against the heretics. During their visit they were introduced to the governess by her adviser Cardinal Granvelle in French as "geux" (beggars); as a result they subsequently referred to themselves as "Geuzen".

The situation escalated and the so-called Iconoclasm began in the churches. The king sent an army, but it did not arrive until a year later, when all was quiet once more. This was naturally felt to be provocative. Along with the Spanish army came the Duke of Alva, a representative of the "hard line" who set up the so-called Bloody Council.

With the attempt by William of Orange to occupy Brabant the 80-Years' War started in 1568.

There were indeed moves for peace, but without success (eg the Pacification of Ghent, 1576). On 6th January 1579 the Walloon provinces of Artesia [Artois], Hainault, Namur, Luxemburg and Limburg founded the "Union of Atrecht" [Arras] in which they proclaimed a break with the uprising against the Spanish king. Barely three weeks later, in the "Union of Utrecht", the provinces of Brabant, Flanders, Holland, Zeeland and Gelderland promised not to sign a separate peace deal with Philip II.

In 1581, in the "Edict of Delay", the States-General spelt out the points by which Philip had violated the treaty with his subjects. Philip was no longer regarded as the sovereign.

The fall of Antwerp

In 1585, during the 80-Years' War, the Spanish under the leadership of Alessandro Farnese conquered Antwerp. In retaliation the northern provinces closed the River Scheldt. This marked the definitive partition of the Netherlands.

As a result of these conflicts ever more people emigrated from the south. Within this mass emigration many highly qualified professional artisans, merchants, intellectuals and artists left their homes in the south and moved to the north. This was an important stimulus for the later Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, set up in the northern provinces in 1588. (For the development of the language in this period see also Diphthongisation and the "Holland Expansion")

The republic of the Seven United Netherlands

The dream of a single great "Netherlands" was over, and the 17 provinces divided into two parts. These emigrations, together with the political situation, led to economic life shifting to the rebellious provinces.

In the south there was no longer any support for rebellion. The closure of the Scheldt blocked off the Flemish ports.

The war continued, interrupted only by the Twelve-Years' Truce (1609-21). In the meantime religious belief split the whole continent into two parts. In the Netherlands a new religious conflict broke out between the followers of Arminius (the remonstranten) and of Gomarus the contraremonstranten). The Golden Age had passed and from 1618 the Dutch war merged into the 30 Years' War in Europe. The whole of Europe was now one great theatre of battle and the conflicts were not resolved until 1648 at the Peace of Munster. In this treaty, amongst other things, the Republic was recognised by Spain as a sovereign nation and the closure of the Scheldt was confirmed. [see map: "The Netherlands after the Peace of Munster"].

In the middle of the 17th century the conflicts resumed with the trade wars between England and the Netherlands ("Navigation Act", 1651). France also invaded the Netherlands again and began a war with England. The appearance of William II as the new regent of the Netherlands changed the situation and a year later the French withdrew again.

The great time was now in the past, prosperity ceased and the Netherlands were no longer the principal trade power.